主要分为以下四种。
1. 代词（pronouns）
具体包括人称代词、指示代词和关系代词等（personal, demonstrative, relative, etc）。在上下句的关联中，代词是最为紧密的一类词。当作者再次谈及上句相关话题时，为了避免重复，遵循语言学的最简单化原理，作者会用代词指代该话题词。例如，
speaking a foreign language is an enormous asset in the modern world. this is why so many junior high schools are now offering language classes.
today's teachers are faced with a stark choice. they must decide whether to teach in a way that helps student pass standardized exams or teach in a way that actually helps students learn.
2. 定冠词the + 名词（specific articles+nouns）
名词所指对象第一次出现时，用不定冠词a连接，当后句再次提及该名词对象时，为了表示它和前一句名词是同一关系，会用定冠词the引出。例如，
a woman is walking into our classroom. the woman is our teacher.
3. 重复话题词或同义近义改写（repetition, synonym, or slight variation of a word）
上下句的衔接也可以通过重复话题词实现，或者是对该话题词进行相关改写。例如，
to foster healthy relationships between children in a classroom, teachers should provide time for games and fun activities. having healthy relationships with their peers helps children gain confidence useful in other parts of their lives. (重复话题词)
before choosing a public or private school for their children, parents should take into account the cost. the price of a private school is usually much higher than that of a public school. (话题词同义改写)
4. 过渡性词和词组（transitional phrases/transitional adverbs）
上面讲到的三种句间关系属于隐性关系。隐性关系通过上下句的语义关系体现。现在，我们要讲的是句子间的显性关系，即通过明显的逻辑连词或副词来体现句间关系。这些显性关系词包括以下类别。
4.1 时间关系
then, next, later, finally, etc.
4.2 因果关系
therefore, consequently, as a result, etc.
4.3 转折关系
however, but, yet, nevertheless, on the other hand, etc.
4.4 解释关系
that is, in other words, etc.
4.5 举例关系
for instance, for example
例如，peers and older siblings have a major influence on how school children behave. for instance, young children often repeat bad words they hear from their friends or brothers and sisters.
有了上面的理论铺垫，我们再来看小插题就容易得多了！
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